SEXUAL OFFENCES AND OFFENDING Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

SEXUAL OFFENCES AND OFFENDING - Essay Example According to Lees (2000), law reform initiatives have expanded the definitions of rape, advocacy groups have become more widespread and established, and police officers have been exposed to better training and education programmes. However, it remains less clear how these changes have been accompanied by a significant shift in police officers’ attitudes towards rape complainants. This paper seeks to examine the response of police officers to rape allegations, the manner in which police investigate these allegations, and the challenges faced by the police when dealing with these allegations. According to Epstein and Langebahn (1994), offences if sexual violation and rape have notoriously low reporting rates. Few victims are willing to approach the police on their own accord. At the same time, of the cases that are reported, few of them proceed to the point of prosecution. While several studies have been conducted on rape cases which resulted in prosecution, little research has been conducted on complainant’s experiences of reporting rape to the police. This is despite the significant reforms to law and procedures taking effect in the mid 1980s. One of the first countries to attempt key reforms in its rape laws was New Zealand. It introduced an expanded and gender-neutral definition of rape in 1986. It also abolished married men’s right to spousal immunity from prosecution for rape. Similar reforms have been undertaken in England, the United States, and Australia. Jordan (2001) draws from a research conducted in the 1990s to determine the level to which women’s experiences of reporting rape to the police had improved since the reforms in New Zealand were initiated. In the study, 48 women were interviewed, with extensive information obtained regarding reporting and statement-taking, the medical examination, and support agency contacts. Throughout the study, there was a recurring issue. This is whether or not a woman

Explain how the U.S. attitude towards European integration has evolved Essay

Explain how the U.S. attitude towards European integration has evolved between 1945 and the enlargement of the EU to 25 members in 2004 - Essay Example The growth of European unity from a six nation trading block in the 1940s to the 25 nation political, military and economic confederation that exists today has been accompanied by a similar evolution in America’s attitude toward the integration of Europe. There are as many reasons for the US to view the European Union as a threat as there are to view it as a beneficial force. Economically, the EU exceeds the US in population and therefore has the potential to become an economic rival, if it has not done so already. The extent to which the EU has come to coordinate common defense policies and structures also poses a potential challenge to NATO, the primary vehicle by which the US has been able to project military influence throughout the world. Further, a key factor precipitating European integration has been an anti-Americanism born of Europe’s desire to become independent from US influence and to stand on the same stage in exerting its own geo-political influence. Ultimately, the official position of the United States has generally been positive toward the European integration project that has taken place over the past several decades. Official American foreign policy has commonly encouraged and praised European efforts to form cooperative economic, political and military institutions to which its constituent nations subscribe. Nevertheless, the challenge that a unified Europe poses for the United States has made unofficial attitudes somewhat less enthusiastic. In the end, whether American attitudes toward European integration are positive or negative will depend largely on whether Europe rises to become a true global challenge to the U.S. World War II devastated Europe and provided an impetus for the concept of integration as a pragmatic approach to avoiding similar destructive conflicts in the future. Making the countries of Europe economically interdependent, starting with the traditionally fiercest antagonists, France and